mathmatics

Mathematics  is essential to the sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require extensive use of mathematics.algebra ,geometry ,calculus etc  for example, are all essential to physics . every branch of mathematics has applications in science, including "pure" areas such as number theory and topology .
computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the society of industrial and applied mathematics , computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing scientific knowledge.Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require an experimental test of its theories and hypotheses.

women in science

Science is largely a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions.A large majority of male scientists are the ones who have made the discoveries, written the books and thus have written the rules of what to study and how to study it. There is evidence suggesting that this is a product of stereotypes (e.g. science as "manly") as well as self fullfilling prophecies.Experiments have shown that parents challenge and explain more to boys than girls, asking them to reflect more deeply and logically.Physicist Evelyn Fox Keller argues that science has masculine stereotypes causing ego and competitiveness to obstruct progress, and that these tendencies prevent collaboration and sharing of information.

Feminist authors and leaders who hail from various educational backgrounds such as Londa schiebenger, Anne Fausto-sterling, Bonnie Spanier, and Evelyn Fox Keller have published many works interpreting and critiquing science from a feminist perspective. Some criticisms include the gendered metaphors in science, the lack of representation of females in the sciences, how science is used to back up the ideals of patriarchy, and sex/gender dichotomies. Feminist science studies as a sub-genre of Women studies or gender studies are available as areas of study in many universities as a method of activism to promote and encourage awareness of social issues as well as promoting women and intersex individuals to contribute more to the sciences.

branches of science

Scientific fields are commonly divided into two major groups: natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biologicallife), and social sciences, which study human behiviour and societies. These groupings are empricial sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as engineering and medicine. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own nomenclature and expertise.

Mathematics  which is classified as a formal science,has both similarities and differences with the empirical sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a prion than empirical method.

Nature

Before the invention or discovery of the concept of ''nature'' ( Ancient Greek phusis), by the Pre socratic philosphier, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".Science was therefore distinguished as the knowledge of nature, and the things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy — the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or theoristics, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans.

Politicization of science

Many issues damage the relationship of science to the media and the use of science and scientific arguments by politician. As a very broad generalisation, many politicians seek certainties and facts whilst scientists typically offer probabilities and caveats. However, politicians' ability to be heard in the mass media frequently distorts the scientific understanding by the public .

John Horan ,Chris Moonay and researchers from the US and Canada have described Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs), where an organization or think tank makes it their only goal to cast doubt on supported science because it conflicts with political agendas. Hank Campbell and microbiologist Alex Berezow have described "feel-good fallacies" used in politics, where politicians frame their positions in a way that makes people feel good about supporting certain policies even when scientific evidence shows there is no need to worry or there is no need for dramatic change on current programs.

Science wars

The science wars were a series of intellectual exchanges, between scientific realists and postmodernist critics, about the nature of scientific theory and intellectual inquiry. They took place principally in the U.S in the 1990s in the academic and mainstream press. The scientific realists accused the postmodernists of having effectively rejected scientific objectivity, the scientific method and scientific knowledge. Scientific realists (such as Norman Levitt, Paul R. Gross, Jean Bricmont and Alan Sokal) argued that scientific knowledge is real, and that postmodernists thought that it is not real. Though much of the theory associated with 'postmodernism' (see Poststucturalism) did not make any interventions into the natural sciences , the scientific realists took aim at its general influence. The scientific realists argued that large swaths of scholarship, amounting to a rejection of objectivity and realism, had been influenced by major 20th Century poststucuralis philosophers (such as Jacques Derrida,Gellies Deleuze ,Jean Francois Lyotard and others), whose work they declared to be incomprehensible or meaningless. They implicated a broad range of fields in this trend, including cultural tudies , cultural anathropology, feminist studies, comparative liturature , media studies , and science and technology studies. They accused those postmodernist critics who did actually discuss science of having a limited understanding of it.

Science policy

Science policy is an area of public policy concerned with the policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including research funding often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care and environmental monitoring. Science policy also refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences. In accordance with public policy  being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.

state policy has influenced the funding of public works and science for thousands of years, dating at least from the time of the Mohists who inspired the study of logic during the period of the Hundred schools of thought and the study of defensive fortifications during the warning states period in china.